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The problem is that languages may vary widely yet it appears limitless. It has been the goal of linguistics to describe the diversity of human languages and be able to explain the constraints of these diversities. The major approaches for linguistic diversity studies have been formulated by Noam Chomsky’s deductive (or theoretical) approach which is to construct the basis of a sample a general characterization of what a human language must be like and to be able to predict properties of other languages from this. Which in practice, is a concrete study conducted to construct an ever deeper and much more intricate analyses of a very few languages or even just at least one, which as often as it may seem is the English language. Another major approach is Joseph Greenberg’s inductive (or taxonomic) approach. Greenberg’s taxonomic approach is based more on checking out all known languages on earth (at least in theory or in practice, has a sample representative), indexing language properties and producing a list of possibilities. Which in practice, translates to a concrete study which relies on amassing as much data as possible from a wide range of unrelated languages as it possibly could. Any linguists working within both of these paradigms have shown to be successful at amassing data and developing a much thorough understanding of human language.¹

Now what is language testing? It is said to be “the practice and study of evaluating the proficiency of an individual in using a particular language effectively.”

“It (language testing) is the activity of developing and using language tests. As a psychometric activity, language testing traditionally was more concerned with the production, development and analysis of tests. Recent critical and ethical approaches to language testing have placed more emphasis on the uses of language tests. The purpose of a language test is to determine a person’s knowledge and/or ability in the language and to discriminate that person’s ability from that of others. Such ability may be of different kinds, achievement, proficiency or aptitude. Tests, unlike scales, consist of specified tasks through which language abilities are elicited. The term language assessment is used in free variation with language testing although it is also used somewhat more widely to include for example classroom testing for learning and institutional examinations.”

Ever since, tests are used to segregate who is capable of doing something or not. It dates back as early as the 19^th Century. It is deemed useful to gauge how a topic is understood.²

There are different types of Language Tests that caters to the needs of assessing learning outcomes that may lead to elaboration and development of different test formats. Language testing took the form of testing knowledge with regard to language, usually testing knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. The ultimate objective in language teaching according to Stern is that effective language learning must concern with the learning outcome.

Wigglesworth adds that “In the assessment of languages, tasks are designed to measure learners” with regard to their productive language skills based on performance which allows candidates to demonstrate their language skills and the kind that may be required in a real world context.

The issue of authenticity would be necessary for the assessment of language for some or specific functions. Language tests differ however with respect to their design, and what for. This is in respect to test methods and test purposes. An example of language test of method would be the traditional paper and pencil language tests from performance tests.
Typically, paper and pencil language tests are used for language knowledge assessment like grammar, vocabulary etc., or for listening and reading comprehension. While in performance-based tests, language skills are assessed thru communication act. Performance tests are commonly about speaking and writing. For example, to ask learners to introduce him or herself formally or informally thru written composition, a paragraph or an essay, on how he or she spent her holidays. These are examples of simulations of real – world tasks in realistic contexts. In terms of purpose, several language tests are devised to measure outcomes learning. Each test has its own specific purpose, properties and criterion to be measured.

Achievement tests, referred to as attainment or summative test, are devised to measure language learning with reference to a particular course of study or program of instruction. An example of which are quarterly tests designed to show language mastery. An achievement test could also be a listening comprehension test based on a particular set of situational dialogues in a textbook. The test helps the teachers judge the success of their teaching and identifies the weaknesses of their learners.

Cloze tests usually measures reading comprehension. In a cloze test blanks are left for words which are removed from a reading passage at regular intervals. An example would be to remove the fifth word. The learners then read the passage and try to guess missing words.

Diagnostic tests are designed primarily to diagnose particular linguistic aspects. Pronunciation diagnostic tests, for example, have the purpose of determining phonological features of the English language which are more likely posing problems and difficulties for a group of learners. Diagnostic language tests are designed to provide learners a guide on how to start learning using their own personal program or their own testing learning paths. It also provides learners with a way to test their language knowledge. Better information about strengths and weaknesses are acquired. Ideally it is designed to assess the students’ ‟knowledge of and about the language itself and language skills such as listening, speaking, reading or writing.

The discrete-point test or the discrete-item tests, is a language test which measures individual language knowledge like grammar test with emphasis on different sections like tenses, adverbs and prepositions. Discrete-point tests are theory based wherein language consists of different parts like speech sounds, grammar and even vocabulary, and involves different skills such as listening, speaking, reading or writing which are made up of elements that can be tested separately. Multiple-choice questions are regarded as discrete-point tests. It is too often contrasted with integrative tests. An integrative test requires a learner to use several skills at the same time.

An example of integrative tests is essay-writing since it is leaning heavily on grammar or vocabulary knowledge and rules of discourse; another example of an integrative test is dictation as it requires knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and listening comprehension skills.

Language aptitude test is a hybrid concept part linguistic which is also in part psychological, referring to the ability one is endowed with in learning a language. It is a combination of phonological, syntactic and psychological abilities. Basically it is the ability to detect phonetic differences, grammatical functions of words and the ability to make inferences and inductive learning of a language. Language aptitude test consists of several different items measuring abilities for sound-coding, grammar-coding, inductive-learning, and memorization.

Placement tests are originally designed to place levels for learners appropriate for a program or course. The term “placement test” refers to the purpose for which it is used. Testing procedures such as dictation, interview or a grammar test can be used for placement purposes. The English Placement test (EPT) is an illustrative example of this test-type. It is designed to assess the reading level of and writing skills of incoming undergraduate students so as to place them in appropriate courses. If the fail, they will be directed to remedial courses or programs to help them attain these skills.

A proficiency test was devised to measure how much of a language someone has learned. It measures the learner’s general level of language mastery. Most English language proficiency tests are based on testing items with high frequency-count vocabulary and general basic grammar.

An achievement-like test such as the progress test is closely related to a particular set of teaching materials or a course of instruction. Progress tests are administered by the end of a term, unit, or course. It helps examiners in general and language teachers to assess the degree of success of their programs and teaching. Helping them identify their shortcomings and weaknesses. Progress tests are also used for diagnostic to sense the areas of difficulties encountered by learners in general.

TOEFL or Test of English as a Foreign Language is a large-scale language assessment most well-known and widely used large-scale language assessment in the world. It was first developed to help in the assessment of non-native speakers’ language competence.³

            Bessie Dendrinos’ paper discusses testing issues instead of assessment issues. It aims to elicit data about language abilities of the learners and measures what people already know. It depicts monolingual projects measuring language competence or performance for a monolingual setting. It measures what is taught, assessing knowledge or skills of value depending on the language program. This goes to show that these test focuses on vocabulary range, control and grammatical ability through verbal or writing and how information is understood.

            Tests are said to measure teaching outcome, and if this is the case, there should be a shift from monolingual to plurilingualtesting, taking into consideration the culture of these language teachers and learners.

            Education is said to be the key to steer the course into the development and assessment required for a globalized world. Acknowledging the diversity of communication and changing it into a multilingual context.

 

At present, certification language exams are monolingual because of its marketability, until recently where some countries are now trying to develop a more localized exam and developing a platform for their own languages. Localized exams are more concerned with differences in social contexts rather than focusing on autonomous language meanings. This is backing up a belief that if people are not certified for their competency in a language, their knowledge lacks credibility.

            If multilingualism is considered, it would incorporate multiculturalism as well. Some research and testing involving the issues of validity and reliability is now developing how to best approach multilingualism and diverting their attention to cultural reality of the learners and testers.

            With a possible shift from monolingualism to plurilingualism in language testing, certain characteristics is put into consideration.

Society may have divided humanity’s culture, language and everything else in between. But we have to put in mind that there is a Source and a oneness to look back and possibility to look forward to.

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